From Carnegie to Bologna: The Evolution of Academic Credit Systems

In the contemporary world of higher education, academic credit has established itself as a fundamental unit of measurement for organizing, quantifying, and recognizing student learning. An academic credit represents a specific number of hours of work completed by the student, encompassing both direct teaching and autonomous and practical activities. This system enables the standardization of academic load, facilitates student mobility, and guarantees the comparability of programs in a globalized context. According to the Council of Europe (2015), credit not only measures time but also learning achievements, making it an essential mechanism for transparency and assurance of educational quality.

The history of academic credit dates to the nineteenth century in the United States, where the concept of student credit hours emerged as a response to the need to standardize the transition between high school and university. Promoted by the Carnegie Foundation, this model aimed to establish standard criteria for determining the duration and value of courses (Shedd, 2003). Since then, credit has become the organizing axis of the American curricular structure and an international reference. However, the North American model has been criticized for focusing more on teaching time than on learning outcomes (Silva, White & Toch, 2015).

In Europe, the significant milestone was the creation in 1989 of the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) within the Erasmus program. The ECTS established that an academic year is equivalent to 60 credits, each with a value of between 25 and 30 hours of total student work (European Commission, 2015). This system was definitively adopted within the framework of the Bologna Process (1999), whose objective was to harmonize European university systems, promote student mobility, equivalence of degrees, and the internationalization of higher education (Wächter, 2003). Today, ECTS is recognized as the most widespread international standard, even beyond Europe.

In the UK, the scheme used is the Credit Accumulation and Transfer Scheme (CATS), where one credit is equivalent to 10 hours of notional learning. A full academic year is equivalent to 120 CATS credits, which corresponds to 60 ECTS credits, facilitating international conversion (QAA, 2019). This flexibility has enabled British universities to maintain their own educational traditions while simultaneously participating fully in the European Higher Education Area.

The importance of academic credit transcends the simple curricular organization. Today, it is an instrument of quality assurance and accountability. By quantifying student engagement and linking it to competencies and learning outcomes, credits enable institutions to demonstrate internal consistency, meet accreditation standards, and facilitate mutual recognition of studies across countries (Adam, 2004). Additionally, in a world where online education, micro-credentials, and lifelong learning are expanding, credits provide a common foundation for certifying and transferring learning beyond traditional classroom boundaries.

In short, academic credit has established itself as a lingua franca of global higher education. From its origins in the United States to its consolidation in Europe with ECTS and its adaptation in systems such as the British CATS, credit plays a strategic role in ensuring transparency, mobility, and quality. In the context of internationalized higher education, its relevance will continue to increase, not only as a measure of time, but also as a guarantee of learning and professional competence in the twenty-first century.

I. Analysis of Academic Credits

The analysis of academic credits is a process that verifies the academic workload of a study program and determines whether it complies with national and international standards of higher education. It considers the relationship between student working hours, learning outcomes, and accreditation requirements.

1. Identification of the Unit of Measure

• In most countries, 1 academic credit is equivalent to a certain number of hours of student work per week in a semester (typically 15 weeks).

• Depending on the system:

  • USA (Carnegie Unit): 1 credit = 15 hours of classroom + 30 hours of independent work ≈ 45 total hours per semester.

  • Europe (ECTS system): 1 credit = 25–30 hours of total student work.

  • Latin America: generally adapted to either Carnegie or ECTS, according to national regulations.

2. Calculation of Student Workload

Academic workload includes:

• Direct contact hours: classes, laboratories, seminars, tutorials.

• Independent work: readings, research, essays, projects, exam preparation.

• Evaluation activities: midterms, presentations, final exams.

Example calculation:

• 3 hours of class per week × 15 weeks = 45 hours.

• 6 hours of independent study per week × 15 weeks = 90 hours.

• Total = 135 hours ÷ 45 (Carnegie standard) = 3 academic credits.

3. Relationship to Learning Outcomes

• The analysis is not only quantitative (hours), but also qualitative.

• Each course must justify how the allocated hours contribute to achieving the intended learning outcomes.

• This ensures coherence between credits, course content, and competencies.

4. Validation with Regulations and Accreditation Standards

• Compare with requirements of the Ministry of Education or accrediting agencies (e.g., SACSCOC, DEAC).

• Review distribution of credits within the curriculum: basic, specialized, electives, internships, thesis/degree work.

• Ensure that total credits match the expected level of the program (e.g., Bachelor’s ≈ 120 credits; Master’s ≈ 36–48 credits in the USA).

5. Analysis Report

The results are typically presented in a structured table including:

• Course name.

• Hours of class, laboratory, and independent study.

• Total workload hours.

• Credits assigned.

• Correspondence with competencies and learning outcomes.

 Academic Credit Analysis Template

II-American Credit System (Carnegie Unit)

a. Definition
1 academic credit = 1 hour of instruction with the faculty + 2 hours of independent work per week for ~15 weeks (semester).
In total, 1 credit ≈ 45 hours of student work in the semester. This definition comes from U.S. federal regulations (34 CFR §600.2) and is applied by accrediting agencies. eCFRSACSCOC

b. Credit Calculation
3-credit course (very common in undergraduate):
3 h/week of class × 15 weeks = 45 h of contact
6 h/week of study × 15 weeks = 90 hours independent
Total: 135 h → 3 credits (3 × 45)

4-credit course (e.g., science with lab):
4 hours of contact + 8 hours of study/week × 15 = 180 hours → 4 credits

1-credit course (seminar, practice, workshop):
1 hour of class + 2 hours of study/week × 15 = 45 h → 1 credit

Note: In accelerated formats (e.g., 8 weeks) the total hours do not change, only increase the weekly load to reach the same total per credit. The same definition applies to face-to-face and distance courses as long as there is regular and substantive interaction with the teacher. eCFR

c. Typical distribution by program level
Associate degree (2 years): minimum 60 credits.
Bachelor’s Degree (4 years): minimum 120 credits. (Widely adopted practice by regional accreditors; e.g., ACCJC makes it explicit as the “minimum length” of the program.) ACCJC
Master’s Degree: usually requires ≥30 credits (varies by discipline and institution; many set 30–36). Examples of public institutional policies establish a minimum of 30. NCSU CatalogUTSA Undergraduate CatalogUniversity of Alabama Catalog
PhD: often ≥60 post-master’s credits or ~90 post-baccalaureate credits (depends on institutional/state design; see normative examples). Ohio LawsGraduate Catalog

d. Importance in accreditation
Agencies such as SACSCOC, DEAC, ACCSC, and MSCHE verify that:
The credit calculation follows the federal definition (Carnegie).
Each course documents hours, activities, and learning outcomes commensurate with the assigned credits (including distance learning).
The total program load complies with institutional standards and policies. SACSCOCdeac.orgaccsctraining.orgMSCHE

Example in table (American System)

(Arithmetic is derived from the federal definition: 1 credit ≈ 45 total hours.) eCFR

III-How to calculate academic credit from a syllabus (step by step)

What are we looking for?
From the syllabus, we want to determine:
How many credits the course should have, depending on:

• Class hours (face-to-face or synchronous virtual).

• The hours of independent work of the student (readings, assignments, essays, projects, etc.).

• Evaluation hours (exams, presentations, final projects).

1. Identify the duration of the course
Most syllables indicate:

• Duration in weeks (e.g. 15 weeks).

• Number of hours per week (e.g. 3 hours of class).
  If the syllabus does not indicate weeks, use the institutional standard: normally 15 or 16 weeks in undergraduate, 8 in accelerated graduate.

2. Identify weekly activities
Check the syllable and answer:

• How many hours of class are there per week? These are called contact hours (face-to-face or virtual).

• What tasks does the teacher ask for weekly? Readings, summaries, essays, forums, practices, cases, research. Estimate how many hours it takes the student to complete that (independent work).

• Are there evaluations? Midterm exams, final exams, presentations, group work.

3. Add up the total hours of the course
Use this basic formula:
Total Course Hours = (class hours per week × number of weeks) + (hours of independent study per week × number of weeks) + (estimated hours of evaluations and final projects)

4. Divide by the Carnegie Standard
In the American system:
1 academic credit = 45 hours of total student work.
Then:
Credits = Total Course Hours ÷ 45

What should you look for in the syllabus?

When reviewing a syllabus, identify:

If the course is asynchronous online, you should still count hours of activities, readings, and forums as “independent work.”
Accreditors such as SACSCOC, DEAC, etc. require that the calculation of credits be justified based on the student’s hours of work.
It is not enough to put “3 credits”: you have to show the analysis.

Universal formula (American system)
Credits =
[(Class hours per week × weeks) +
(Hours of independent study per week × weeks) +
(Evaluation hours and projects)]
÷ 45

Example:
Syllabus – Business Law
Course Title: Business Law
Credits: 3 credit hours (equivalente a ~96 horas de trabajo total del estudiante)
Duration: 8 weeks
Prerequisites: None (introductory level)
Modality: Online / Hybrid

Course Description
This course provides students with an introduction to the legal environment of business, covering fundamental concepts of contracts, torts, agency, intellectual property, employment law, and regulatory compliance. Emphasis is placed on the application of legal principles to real-world business scenarios, critical analysis of case law, and ethical decision-making. Students will engage in discussions, research, and problem-solving exercises to develop practical legal reasoning skills applicable to business contexts.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this course, students will be able to:

• Explain the foundational principles of business law and their relevance in modern commerce.

• Analyze contractual relationships and apply concepts of offer, acceptance, and consideration.

• Evaluate tort and liability cases in a business environment.

• Interpret the legal implications of employment and agency relationships.

• Assess the role of intellectual property, ethics, and government regulation in business operations.

• Conduct legal research and present findings in written and oral formats.

Credit Hour Calculation (3 Credits = 96 Hours)
Contact/Instructional Hours (online lectures, forums, feedback): 36 hours (≈ 4.5 hrs/week)
Student Preparation & Assignments (readings, research, homework): 60 hours (≈ 7.5 hrs/week)

Course Requirements and Assessments

• Discussion Forums (Weekly): 20%

• Assignments (Weekly case briefs, exercises): 20%

• Midterm Exam (Week 4): 15%

• Research Project (Written paper + presentation in Week 7): 20%

• Final Exam (Week 8): 25%

Weekly Schedule
Week 1 – Introduction to Business Law & Legal Systems
Topics: Sources of law, court systems, business ethics.
Activities: Forum on “Why Business Law Matters Today”; short case study.
Assessment: Assignment #1 – Case Brief.

Week 2 – Contracts I: Formation and Elements
Topics: Offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity, legality.
Activities: Forum discussion on contract examples from daily life.
Assessment: Assignment #2 – Contract Analysis.

Week 3 – Contracts II: Performance, Breach, and Remedies
Topics: Discharge of contracts, breach of contract, damages, equitable remedies.
Activities: Case study analysis in groups.
Assessment: Assignment #3 – Case Brief.

Week 4 – Torts and Liability
Topics: Negligence, product liability, intentional torts.
Activities: Forum on liability in real-world companies.
Midterm Exam.

Week 5 – Employment Law and Agency
Topics: Employment contracts, employee rights, discrimination, agency principles.
Activities: Forum discussion on employment case law.
Assessment: Assignment #4 – Case Brief.

Week 6 – Intellectual Property and Business Regulation
Topics: Copyright, patents, trademarks, trade secrets, regulatory compliance.
Activities: Forum – “Should businesses have stronger IP protection?”
Assessment: Research Project draft submission.

Week 7 – Business Organizations and Ethics
Topics: Partnerships, corporations, limited liability companies, ethical practices.
Activities: Student presentations of Research Project.
Assessment: Research Project final paper & presentation.

Week 8 – International Business Law & Course Review
Topics: Global trade law, dispute resolution, international contracts.
Activities: Review forum.
Final Exam.

Required Textbook
Clarkson, K. W., Miller, R. L., Cross, F. B. (2021). Business Law: Text and Cases (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Policies

• Academic Integrity: Plagiarism or use of AI-generated content without proper citation is prohibited.

• Participation: Active engagement in forums is mandatory.

• Late Work: Assignments submitted after due dates will incur penalties unless prior arrangements are made.

Credit Note:
3 credits in 8 weeks are equivalent to 12 hours of weekly academic work (4.5 contact + 7.5 self-employed).
This ensures compliance with international higher education standards (e.g. U.S. Department of Education, ECTS equivalence).

In the United States, the federal definition of academic credit (34 CFR §600.2) states that 1 credit “reasonably amounts to not less than 1 hour of instruction + 2 hours of out-of-class work per week for ~15 weeks,” i.e.: 15 contact hours + 30 hours of freelance work = 45 total hours per credit. eCFR

Based on that, for your Business Law course (3 credits, 8 weeks) the goal is:
Contact Hours (R/SI): 45 h
Independent work: 90 h
Total: 135 h

Note: In online courses, activities with regular and substantive interaction (R/SI) of the teacher count as contact hours: direct instruction, evaluative feedback, content responses, facilitated forums, etc., according to the same standard. eCFR

Matrix by activity (how to get to 45 h + 90 h)
Contact (finish: 45 h)

• Mini-classes/guided lectures (8 × 2.0 h) …… 16 h

• Forums with facilitation and teacher feedback (8 × 1.5 h) …… 12 h

• Midterm (instruction + application) …… 4 h

• Final exam (guided review + exam) …… 5 h

• Presentations/project (synchronous session + feedback) …… 8 h
  Total contact = 45 h

Independent (finish: 90 h)

• Text/case readings (8 × 4 h) …… 32 h

• Tareas / case briefs (4 × 4 h) …… 16 h

• Research project (search, writing, slides) …… 20 h

• Midterm – Study …… 6 h

• Study for the end …… 8 h

• Additional preparation/forums (planning, drafts) …… 8 h
  Independent total = 90 h

2) Suggested Weekly Distribution (8 weeks)

3) How to Audit/Adjust Quickly (Formulas)
Target per credit (US):

• Contact = 15 h × number of credits

• Independent = 30 h × number of credits

• Total = 45 h × number of credits. eCFR

Weekly Goal (8 weeks, 3 credits):

• Contact ≈ 45/8 = 5,625 h/week (average)

• Independent ≈ 90/8 = 11.25 h/week (average)

Rule of thumb: add up the hours allocated to each activity of the week and adjust until you reach those averages (spreading peaks in exam/project weeks).

Conclusions:
The analysis of academic credit systems demonstrates their central role as a measure of student workload and as a guarantee of quality and transparency in higher education. From the Carnegie Unit in the United States to ECTS in Europe, credits function as a common denominator that allows institutions to structure programs, align learning outcomes, and ensure comparability across education systems. Its importance is not only administrative, but also pedagogical: credits link instructional time, independent study, and assessments to verifiable achievements.

In today’s global academic context, where student mobility, online education, and micro-credentials are expanding rapidly, credits continue to be the currency of higher education. They offer a standardized framework that accrediting agencies, governments, and institutions rely on to validate degrees and safeguard academic rigor. Ultimately, academic credit represents the balance between time invested, acquired knowledge and demonstrated skills, constituting an indispensable pillar to maintain the coherence, credibility and international recognition of educational programs.

References
Adam, S. (2004, July 1–2). Using learning outcomes: A consideration of the nature, role, application and implications for European education of employing “learning outcomes” at the local, national and international levels. United Kingdom Bologna Seminar, Edinburgh, UK. Scottish Executive.
Council of Europe. (2015). ECTS users’ guide. Publications Office of the European Union. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/da7460f5-8a27-11e5-b8b7-01aa75ed71a1
European Commission. (2015). European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS). Directorate-General for Education and Culture. https://education.ec.europa.eu/education-levels/higher-education/inclusive-and-connected-higher-education/ects
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. (2019). Credit frameworks for higher education qualifications.Gloucester, UK: QAA. https://www.qaa.ac.uk
Shedd, J. M. (2003). The history of the student credit hour. New Directions for Higher Education, 2003(122), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/he.118
Silva, E., White, T., & Toch, T. (2015). The Carnegie unit: A century-old standard in a changing education landscape.Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. https://www.carnegiefoundation.org/resources/publications/carnegie-unit/
Wächter, B. (2003). An introduction: The background to the Bologna Process. Higher Education in Europe, 28(3), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/0379772032000121619
U.S. Department of Education. (n.d.). 34 CFR §600.2 – Definitions (credit hour). Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR). https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-34/subtitle-B/chapter-VI/part-600
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges. (n.d.). Credit hours policy statement.SACSCOC. https://sacscoc.org/accreditation-standards/policies-guidelines/
Distance Education Accrediting Commission. (n.d.). Documenting the credit hour. DEAC. https://www.deac.org
Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges. (n.d.). Appendix III – Credit hour equivalencies. ACCSC. https://www.accsc.org
Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges. (n.d.). Policy on credit hour. ACCJC. https://accjc.org
Example institutional policies (various). (n.d.). Minimum graduate credit hour requirements. [Institutional policy documents].